Introduction

Historians estimate the age of the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) to be between 2500 and 1750 BC, based on radiocarbon dating data. IVC is also known as the Harappan Civilization, which was discovered through excavation in 1921 under the supervision of Daya Ram Sahni. Here we need to be cautious that the term Harappan civilization does not mean that all other sites are similar to Harappa or that this is where the culture originated. Indus valley civilization gradually matured into a full-fledged civilization in different phases. The beginnings of which can be found in the Neolithic villages of this region around 7000 BC at the Neolithic site of Mehrgarh.

In 1921, Indian archaeologists and historians such as R B Dayaram Sahni (on the Ravi River) worked under the guidance or direction of Sir John Marshall. R. D. Banerjee discovered Mohenjo-Daro, often known as the ‘Mound of the Dead,’ on the Indus River in 1922.

An investigation of four sites excavated in recent years: Mehrgarh, Amri, Kalibangan, and Lothal, can chronicle the long-term indigenous evolution of the Indus Valley Civilization, which is thought to have started on the outlying hills of eastern Baluchistan of Indus Valley and later spread into the plains.

• It was essentially an urban phenomenon.
• It represented the first urban revolution in the Indian subcontinent.
• The Harappan civilization was an extensive well developed Urban civilization till now. More than 1400 towns and cities of the civilization have been discovered. It was 20 times bigger than its contemporary Egyptian civilization, and it was 12 times bigger than the combined areas of Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations.
• The Harappan settlements are quite extensive, and because of this very fact, the archaeologists invested most of their time in understanding the horizontal exploration of these towns and cities.

Origin

• The Harappan Civilization emerged during the centuries of the 3rd millennium B.C.
• Scholars have put forward different opinions about the origin of this great civilization.
• The theory of foreign origin, also called as Theory of the Mesopotamian origin or the Theory of Sumerian origin, states that a group of foreign immigrants or a group of Sumerians (southern port of Mesopotamia civilization/Iraq regions) is migrated to the Indian sub-continent who had prior knowledge of urban life.
  • This theory was put forward by John Marshall, R.E Mortimer Wheeler, and V. Gordon Childe.
• Theory of Aryan Origin states that the Vedic Aryans and the Harappan were one and the same.
  • This was put forward by T.N Ramachandran, K.N Shastri, and S.R Rao.
• The theory of Indigenous origin/gradual evolution states that the background of the Harappan Civilization could be found in the small communities like Zhob, Quetta, Nal etc., in the Baluchistan region and Sothi culture in the Bikaner region of Rajasthan.
  • The process of gradual evolution transformed these communities into flourishing villages by 5000 B.C.
  • Evidence of this cultural phase has been discovered in Mehrgarh (Bolan river valley Baluchistan).

Chronology

• Harappan culture, also known as IVC, was the end result of a long and intricate cultural process. This process of mature development of the IVC is divided into three stages by the Historians, and these three stages are the early Harappan, Mature Harappan, and the late Harappan.
• The early Harappan, C. 3200–2600 BC, mature Harappan, C. 2600–1900 BC, and late Harappan, C. 1900–1300 BC, phases of the IVC are based on the calibration of radiocarbon dates from diverse sites.
• The early Harappan period was the culture’s formative and proto-urban phase. But to support this state, there is limited evidence in support of the early phase of the civilization.
  • The mature Harappan phase was the urban phase, the full-fledged stage of civilization.
  • The late Harappan phase is considered the post-urban phase when the cities started to gradually decline.

Geographical Distribution

• The evidence of the IVC is found in various parts of India (which also includes parts of today’s Pakistan). The various archaeological excavations support the fact that no doubt the IVC was geographically spread in a very large area. This area encompasses present-day Indian states such as Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Western Uttar Pradesh, as well as Pakistan and Afghanistan. The Harappan civilization stretches from Sutkagendor on the Makran Coast (near the Pakistan-Iran border) in the west to Alamgirpur in western Uttar Pradesh in the east.

Nature and character

• It was an indigenous civilization.
• It did not emerge suddenly. It was the outcome of a long-drawn-out process.
• One of the best and unique features of the Harappan civilization was the development of urban centres.
• Mohenjo-Daro is considered the most well-known site, but the first site to be discovered was Harappa.

Settlement pattern

• The Harappan culture was urban, although not all, or even the majority, of its settlements were. Despite Harappan Civilization’s urbanisation, there were many places inhabited by primitive groups such as stone-age hunters, gatherers, or pastoral nomads who coexisted.
• Harappan sites of various sizes and functions: Harappan sites ranged in size and function from huge cities to small pastoral camps. Harappan civilizations such as Rakhigarhi, Mohenjo-Daro, Dholavira, Harappa, and Ganweriwala had the largest settlements. There are many settlements which are less than 5 hectares in size, and these sites include Nausharo, Kot Diji, Allahdino, Rupar, Balakot, and Surkotada.
• Town Planning: Town planning was an important component of the Harappan culture.
  • Almost all of the Indus Valley Civilization’s important monuments (Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Kalibangan, and others) are divided into two parts: a citadel on the western side of the settlement and a lower town on the eastern side.
  • Large constructions formed up the citadel, which could have served as administrative or ritual centres.
  • The residential structures are constructed in the lower town.
  • The Lower Town was also walled. The streets cross one other at right angles in a criss-cross manner. It was used to partition the city into different residential areas. Narrow lanes connect the main roadway to the side streets.
  • During its most advanced phase, Dholavira was likewise divided into three parts: the citadel, middle town, and lower town.
  • The Lothal and Surkotada citadel was part of the main settlement.
  • Many buildings had been built on the platforms, which acted as foundations.
  • These large structures and foundations of the buildings underline the fact that even if one labourer moved roughly a cubic metre of earth daily, just to put the foundations in place, it would have required four million person-days, which means mobilisation of the labour force was carried out on such a large scale.
  • Towns were generally fortified, which depicts that Harappans were peaceful and defensive.

Planning of houses:

• For the building or construction of the houses, a lot of burned bricks were employed. Another feature of the houses is that big houses were made from many rooms which surrounded a square yard. This feature of the house may be used for all the household activities such as cooking and weaving, especially during the hot and dry weather.
• Private wells, kitchens, and bathing platforms were also features of these homes.
  • Scholars estimated that the total number of wells in Mohenjo-Daro was about 700.
  • There was a concern for privacy which was addressed in building a house without windows within the walls along with the floor level. Furthermore, the house’s main entry does not provide a direct view of the house or courtyard.
• There were stairs in some buildings, which suggests that there used to be an upper floor as well.
• The Lower Town at Mohenjo-Daro provides examples of residential buildings.
• Drainage system: This is one of the advanced features of the Harappan civilization as the drainage network was well connected and coverage was good.
  • Drains used to be installed in every home and connected to street drains.
  • After a micro-study of the town planning, Historians noticed that roads and streets were laid in a grid-connected fashion which was intersecting at right angles. It seems that streets and drains were first laid down, and then houses were built along with them.
  • All of these drains were covered with manholes, bricks, or stone slabs (which could be removed for cleaning purposes), and manholes were built at regular intervals throughout the streets for cleaning.
  • The construction of the drainage was made from burnt bricks, which were smoothened from the inside. This demonstrates that individuals were highly well-versed in the science of cleanliness.

Rural-Urban Interaction:

Rural-Urban Interaction is mostly based on food supply from the rural to the urban areas. Not only for the food supplies but urban areas were also dependent on the other life-essential products. Hence these were some reasons which helped in growing village-urban intersections.

The Great Bath of Mohenjo Daro:

• The “big bath” is thought to be the first public water tank in antiquity.
• The tank is around 12 metres north-south by 7 metres wide and has a maximum depth of 2.4 metres.
• From the North and South, two wide steps go into the tank, and little sockets near the edges of the stairs are assumed to have wooden planks or treads.
  • The bottom of the stairwell is made up of a small ledge with a brick edging that runs the length of the pool.
• Coming down the steps, people could walk along this ledge instead of stepping into the water.
• The tank’s floor is watertight thanks to carefully fitted bricks put on edge with gypsum plaster, and the side walls were built in the same way.
• A thick layer of bitumen (natural tar) was poured along the tank’s edges and, presumably, beneath the floor to make it more watertight.
• On the eastern, northern, and southern margins, the brick colonnades were discovered. The stepped margins of the intact columns could have held wooden screens or window frames. Two large doors on the south side of the lake lead into the complex, with another entry on the north and east side.
• The rooms are arranged in chronological order on the eastern side of the building. There is also a single room that may have supplied water for the purpose of filling up. Rainwater harvesting may have been used for the above-mentioned purpose as well, but no inlet drains were found.
• Most historians and scholars agree that this tank was utilized for very important religious purposes and that the water in this tank was used to purify and replenish for keeping in consideration of the bathers’ well-being.

Society

• The Harappan society used to be a middle-class urban community.
• Multiclass civilization was noticed here.
• A multi-ethnic civilization comprising Mediterranean-mongoloids, alpine racial groups etc., constructed the society.
• There were at least three separate social groups: the king, wealthy merchants, and destitute labourers who dwelt in the city’s lower reaches.
• A high degree of stability was prevalent in their social life.
• They used to live in a peaceful manner.
• A secular outlook was seen in society.
• The status of women in society was high. Sir John Marshal opined the same on the basis of the discovery of a large number of women figurines.
  • It’s worth noting that female figurines have been discovered in greater numbers than male figures.
• Entertainment like chess, music and dance were popular.
• They were fond of ornaments.
• Riverine civilization was prominent here. The majority of Harappan settlements were found around riverbanks.
• It was a proto-historic civilization. The scripts are yet to be deciphered.
  • Archaeological evidence suggests that most of the Harappans were literate and aware of scripts.
  • Even common people were aware of scripts as it has been found on the pots and seals of common use.

Administration

• There were urban institutions like Municipality.
  • It carried out the construction and maintenance of the public buildings such as forts, drainage systems, dams, granaries and assembly halls.

Economic life

The secondary and tertiary activities were the teamwork of the Harappan economy. These Harappan peoples practised agriculture and domesticated animals as well.

Agriculture

• Agriculture in the Harappan civilization had certain consistent characteristics in terms of soil, kind, climate, and subsistence pattern. In the Himalayan River valley system, the civilization had good flat terrain, and agriculture was reliant on the monsoon and water supply (irrigation).
• The agro-pastoral economy became the dominating element of this civilization due to its unique geographical features. The Harappan economic system was built on agriculture and related activities, particularly pastoralism (livestock husbandry).
• The resource potential of this area used to be sufficient to produce food surpluses, which is a key aspect of urbanisation. The subsistence base’s diversity may have also contributed to its long-term survival.
• Wheat, barley, sesamum, mustard, peas, and jujube were among the principal crops harvested. Rice husks embedded in pottery were discovered in Lothal and Rangpur, indicating rice farming. Cotton has become an important crop.
• Aside from wheat, fish and animal meat were also part of the Harappan diet.
• At Kalibangan, a ploughed field was uncovered at early Harappan levels. At Shortughai, irrigation channels have been discovered.

Animal husbandry, Hunting and Riverine & Marine resources

• Bones of wild creatures such as Deer, Rhinoceros, Elephants, and Camels have been discovered at several Harappan sites. In addition, Tiger variants have been shown in figurines, although leopards have been less frequently depicted.
• Riverine and marine resources: The people of the IVC exploited marine and riverine resources wherever they were available. One of the most important components of a protein-rich diet was dried fish and molluscs.
• Domesticated animals: There was much evidence of remains of the domesticated animals have been recovered, so historians came to know that animals like humped and humpless cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats etc., were domesticated animals of the Harappan people. The subject of whether the people’s new horse is good or bad is a contentious one.
• Crafts and Techniques: At the time of the Indus Valley Civilization, pottery was a major industry. The wheel-thrown pottery was mass-produced in large quantities, with red-coloured coatings and black-coloured embellishments. Size and shape differences were observed by archaeologists. The Potter’s Wheel was well-known, and the majority of the pots were turned on it.
• IVC employees used to manufacture a variety of seals. Over two thousand seals have been discovered in various locations. The seals were mainly square in shape, and steatite was used to make them. One notable feature of seals is that, with the exception of horses, they can be seen by most animals.
• The seals were used for commercial purposes as well and also for amulets purposes. Seals have the image of the deity or God “Pashupati” (the lord of the beasts). God is depicted as seated in a yogic stance surrounded by four creatures, including an elephant, a tiger, a rhinoceros, and a buffalo. Terracotta can also be found in abundance at Harappan sites. Bulls, buffaloes, monkeys, and dogs are among the animal figurines available.
• Bead making was also a very important industry of that time, and it is considered an important craft. Agate and carnelian are among the precious and semiprecious stones used to create them. Another material that was used to make beads was steatite. At Chanhudaro and Lothal, evidence of bead producers’ shops has been discovered.
• The people of the IVC were not aware of iron, but they were aware of all the other metals. A large number of copper items have been discovered in various IVC locations. Necklaces, bracelets, brooches, pendants, and earrings, among other gold and silver jewellery, have been discovered in Harappan sites.
• According to the evidence, the Harappan people created cotton and woollen textiles and clay figurines wearing materials such as shawls, dresses, and other items of clothing, indicating the types of clothing humans wore.
• Another important skill was stonework. Fine polished pillars and stone masonry were uncovered at Dholavira. The bone carving was another sophisticated skill. Beads, awls, and pins were all made from bone.
• Sculpture in stone and metal: A few pieces of stone and metal sculpture, as well as utilitarian objects made of stone and metal, have been discovered in Harappan sites. The majority of them are gifted artists with strong creative sensibility. The following are some of them: The ‘priest-king’ or Head of a Yogi,’ a stone bust of a masculine figure found at Mohenjo-Daro and dubbed the ‘priest-king’ or Head of a Yogi.
  • Two beautiful stone torsos of a man figure (about 10 cm high) have been unearthed at Harappa.
  • At Mohenjo-Daro, a seated stone ibex or ram (49 27 21 cm).
  • At Dholavira, a stone lizard.
• There have been no life-size statues discovered. A Dholavira sculpture of a shattered, seated male figure is the sole big sculpture.
• At Mohenjo-Daro, two bronze female figurines were unearthed. Two female figures on dancing girls drew attention to this. The figure was created using the lost-wax process, which is still utilized in some parts of India. It stands at a height of 10.8 cm.

Trade and Craft

• Pre-dominance of secondary and tertiary activities were observed here.
• Most of the Harappans were involved in arts and crafts, trade and commerce.
  • Arts and crafts like Bead making, Pottery making, Seal making, stone cutting and toy making industries were most important.
• Red black pottery was particularly well-known.
  • Some of the pots had previously been used to store grain or water.
• Perforated pots could have been used to make fermented alcoholic beverages.
• The Harappans were masters of the potter’s wheel, but they lacked creativity when it came to stone carvings.
• Many pieces of terracotta, including figures of bulls, buffaloes, puppies, monkeys, toy carts, and humans, have been discovered in various locations.
• Bead-making was improved by the Harappans.
• Jewellery made from gold and silver is excavated from IVC regions. The jewellery consists of necklaces, bracelets, pendants, earrings, and brooches.
• A variety of necklaces made of gold, silver, carnelian, and semi-valuable stones were discovered at Allahdino (near Karachi).
• Harappans were familiar with and utilized copper, bronze, silver, and gold, but not iron.
• Cotton and wool were the most common fabrics used by Harappans.

Commodities traded

• Traders must have done a brisk business carrying grains and other food supplies between villages and towns.
• Gujarati rice was shipped to Punjab.
• Cotton was supplied by Lothal and Surkotada to the growing townships of Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa, Banawali, and others.
• Balakot and Chanhudaro were important shellwork and bangle-making centres.
• Carnelian beads, for example, were manufactured in Lothal and Chanhudaro.

External Trade:

• The IVC had international or external trading relations with Mesopotamia. The Persian Gulf countries of Oman and Bahrain were heavily involved in Mesopotamia trade. For this fact, there is plenty of evidence, like artefacts such as beads, seals, dice etc., found in these regions.
• Harappans imported gold from Karnataka, copper from Rajasthan, lead from central India, lapis lazuli from Afghanistan, silver, and tin from Persia.
• The main export items from Myanmar include agricultural products such as barley, wheat, peas, oilseeds, and different agricultural finished products such as cotton goods, ceramics, beads, toys, terracotta figures, and ivory products.
• The Harappan trade created a great demand for various arts and crafts, as a result of which many units of arts and crafts emerged, like Chanhudaro (famous for the toy industry).
• The Harappans carried out their trade and commerce through land routes, rivers as well as sea routes.
  • Lothal was a prominent port of the Harappan civilization.
• Balance of trade was in favour of Harappan, and it was the main region behind the prosperity of Harappan towns and cities. Trade and commerce were practised through the barter system.
• Seals were used in trade and commerce for authentication purposes.
• The flourishing trade and commerce also made a lasting impact on the cultural life of settlements in the Indian sub-continent.
  • The multiclass character, multi-ethnic character and the cosmopolitan outlook in the settlement of the Indian sub-continent were the outcome of the same.
• The Harappans’ urban economic system had an extensive trade network, both internal and foreign. Harappan favoured bartering as a method of exchange.
• Craftsmen needed a variety of metals and expensive stones to produce their products, but they couldn’t be found locally, so they had to be imported.

Food habits

• Non-vegetarian diet was popular among the Harappans, and eating fish was widespread.
• In addition, milk and curd were ingested.
• Another feature of Harappan society is regional variations in diet. People in Sindh and Punjab, for example, ate a lot of wheat and barley, whereas people in Rangpur and Surkotda ate a lot of rice and millets.

Standardization:

• The standardized system of weights and measurements, according to archaeologists and historians, may have aided commerce. Harappan civilization crafts demonstrate a remarkable degree of homogeneity. Weights and measures, for example, were likewise standardized. All of the sites that have been excavated have yielded cubical weights constructed of chalcedony, chert, black stone, and other minerals.
• The binary system (1:2:8:16:32:64) is used in the lower weights, whereas the decimal system is utilized in the upper weights.
• These weights were discovered in recent Harappa excavations. They may have been used to regulate trade and possibly collect taxes as well.

Inscription:

• Approximately 3,700 inscribed items have been unearthed at Harappan sites. Mohenjo-daro and Harappa are responsible for almost 87 percent of all inscriptions. The script has a pictographic style to it.
• The script seen on numerous objects appears to have fully matured and has not changed significantly over time.
• Longer inscriptions with numerous lines were occasionally inscribed in the boustrophedon style, which consists of consecutive lines that start in opposite directions. The first and second lines are written from left to right and right to left, respectively.
• Dholavira is a location in Gujarat’s Rann of Kutch. The site of a massive wooden “signboard” at the citadel’s north entrance has been excavated. It was dubbed a “signboard” because it was so close to the gate. The Indus script, on the other hand, has yet to be decoded, and its exact meaning is unknown.
• The evidence of a single script discovered throughout the broad Harappan civilization zone demonstrates a high degree of cultural unity. There is currently no agreement on the Harappan language’s connection or the script’s decipherment.

Social Differentiation:

• It is said that Harappan society was a mix of various Anthropological races and these races include Proto Australoid, Alpinoids, Mongoloids and Meditts. Of all these races Mediterranean/ Mediter race was in the majority.
• In Harappan culture, there was a wide range of professions, including priests, warriors, peasants, traders, and artisans (masons, weavers, goldsmiths, potters, etc.) At Harappa and Lothal, fragments of numerous types of building structures have been discovered, indicating that such structures were used for residential purposes by diverse classes. Important people lived in the Citadel area, while simple people lived in the lower towns, according to legend.
• Harappans were thought to be peace-loving people because weapons were found in relatively tiny numbers.
• Harappans were fond of adorning themselves. Hairdressing by both men and women can be seen in figurines located at various locations. From Kalibangan, Chanhudaro, a bangle factory and a bead producing facility were located.
• They dressed in cotton and woollen garments. At Mohenjo-Daro, a woven fabric was discovered. Many places have spindles and needles that witness the practice of spinning and weaving.
• Dicing, bullfighting, dancing (a bronze statue of a dancing female), and chess are among their favourite pastimes.
• The rich socioeconomic classes may have included rulers, landlords, and tradesmen. There have to be differences in class and rank based on occupation, income, and prestige. On the other hand, the existence of a caste structure in Harappan culture is not supported by the available evidence.

Religious Beliefs and Practices

• Religion was a private affair among Harappans because, till now, no clearly identifiable public religious buildings have been discovered.
• Idolatry was a thing back then.
• The Harappan religion is commonly referred to as animism, or the worship of trees, stones, and other natural objects.
  • Harappans were naturalists who revered a variety of natural objects.
  • Lingam (phallus) and yoni (fertility cult) were revered.
  • Pipal trees, Humped Bull, and Birds (dove and pigeon) were worshipped.
  • The one-horned unicorn (perhaps the rhinoceros) was revered.
• The worship of the mother goddess has been linked to a high number of terracotta figures discovered at Harappan sites.
• Pashupati, found on the famous seal, is considered their male God. At Mohenjo-Daro, a steatite Pashupati seal was unearthed.
• He is seated in a yogic posture on the seal, surrounded by four animals (elephant, tiger, rhino, and buffalo, each facing a different direction). At his feet, two deer appear.
• Animal worship was practised by Harappan, as indicated by this seal found at Mohenjo-Daro.
• Several female figurines have been discovered in diverse locations. As a result, one of the fundamental elements of the Harappan religion has been the worship of feminine goddesses connected with fertility.
• Harappans also believed in the powers of Amulets (Lucky charms).
• Serpent (A large snake) worship was also practised by Harappan, as indicated by the discovery of serpent-like images.
• The black marks found on the seals and figuring indicate that something like oil and fragrance was burnt by Harappans to please their deities.
• The items of common use found in the graves suggest that Harappan believed in the idea of life after death.
• In Kalibangan and Lothal, fire altars have been discovered.
• There has been no discovery of a free-standing religious edifice such as a temple. The Great Bath at Mohenjo-Daro, on the other hand, appears to have religious importance since it could signify holy dips or sacred washing. They most likely believed in spirits and evil forces and used amulets to defend themselves from them.
• Some notable locations where evidence of fire worship has been discovered include Kalibangan and Lothal.
• A succession of raised brick systems with pits containing ash and animal bones had been discovered at Kalibangan.
• Harappans living in different places followed distinct religious practices.

Burial Practices

• There were varying numbers of the earthen pots buried along the dead body in burials and also in graves dead person was buried with some goods like bangles, beads, and copper mirrors. All of them suggest that the Harappans believed in life after death.
• Three joint or double burials with male and female remains were uncovered at Lothal. Kalibangan has shown evidence of a symbolic burial, which is defined as a burial with pots but no bones or dead corpses. Both Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa featured burnt burials, implying cremation.
• All these differences in burial practices in various regions point toward that the people of IVC may have different religious beliefs.

Political System

There is no conclusive evidence of the Harappan people’s political organisation. However, many public works or municipal works, such as cleaning cities and sewage systems, well-organized cities, and so on, indicate the presence of a centralised authority.

The consistency of Harappan period cultural products and measuring units is another essential component of the centralised governing system, but another hypothesis that cannot be ruled out is that there were multiple states with distinct kinds of political organisation.

The decline of the IVC:

• The Harappan Civilization lasted until the year 1900 BC. The commencement of the post marks the beginning of the next period.
• The rate of deterioration of the Harappan civilization is variable at different places during the urban period (The late Harappan phase). For example, city life abruptly ends in Kalibangan and Banawali, while Mohenjo-Daro and Dholavira exhibit a slow decline. Historians and archaeologists have proposed a number of theories, which are addressed in the following order:
  • Multiple wounded, dead bodies at one location at Mohenjo-Daro support the Aryan invasion theory (theory refuted).
  • Floods wreaked havoc on Mohenjo-Daro on seven occasions.
  • Evidence of tectonic forces and earthquakes was discovered in Kalibangan.
  • River channel changes: Rivers like the Saraswati shifted course, causing water shortages in the region.
  • A blaze (Evidence from Rakhigarhi).
  • Malaria is a parasitic disease that affects (Evidence from Mohenjo-daro).
  • Ecological changes as a result of deforestation, desertification, and other factors (most accepted).
  • Also, because the social attitude of not welcoming change in the population in core capital zones became a reason for not moving to better locations despite natural calamities that led to the decline of capitals and the loss of central control, natural calamities became a reason for not moving to better locations despite natural calamities.
• The social and political aspects of the Harappan civilization’s demise are not well understood based on archaeological evidence. However, it does show that the Harappan civilization underwent a gradual deurbanization phase. The late Harappan phase, which was a post-urban phase, followed the mature Harappan phase.

Important sites and their discovery

• Harappa
  • Pakistan (Punjab)
  • Ravi River
  • Dayaram Shahni (1921)
• Mohenjo-Daro
  • “Mound of the dead”
  • Pakistan (Sindh)
  • Indus River
  • R. D. Banerji
• Lothal
  • Gujarat (Ahmedabad District, at the head of the Gulf of Cambay)
  • Bhogava and Sabarmati river confluence
  • S.R. Rao (1957)
• Kalibangan
  • “Black Bangles”
  • Rajasthan (Ganganagar)
  • Ghaggar River
• ChanhuDaro
  • Pakistan (Sindh), near Mohenjo-Daro
  • Indus River
  • N.G. Mazumdar (1931) and E. Makay
• Rangpur (Near Lothal)
  • Gujarat
  • Madar River
  • M.S. Vatsa ( 1931) S.R. Rao (1953-54)
• Banawali (Hisar)
  • Haryana
  • Rangoi
• Alamgirpur
  • Meerut (UP)
  • Hindon
  • Y.D. Sharma (1958)
• Koti-Diji Sindh (Pakistan)
  • Sindh
  • Ghurey (1835) Fazal Ahmed (1955)
• Amri Sindh (Pakistan)
  • Sindh
• Ropar
  • Punjab (India)
  • Sutlej
• Surkotada
  • Gujarat (Bhuj)
  • J.P. Joshi (1964)
• Suktagendor
  • Sindh (Pakistan)
  • Baluchistan
  • Dasht/Dashak River
• Dholavira
  • Gujarat
• Rakhigarhi, Near Hisar
• Bhirrana
  • Fatehgarh, Haryana

Conclusion

Harappan civilization was the first era of civilization. The destruction of the towns did not signal the end of the Harappan civilization. There were several characteristics of Harappa that survived throughout the historic period.