Precambrian of Extrapeninsular India: Stratigraphy of india

Lithotectonic Units Of Himalaya

Table of Contents

Composition of Extra Peninsula Extrapeninsular India

Extra Peninsula comprises the Himalayas in the North, Arakan Yoma in the East, and foredeep folded beds also known as Shiwaliks or Outer Himalayas in the South. The Himalaya sensu stricto represents the large orogenic belt that covers a length of 2500 km and a width of 300-400 km.

They are bounded by the syntaxes or knee-bends of Nanga Parbat (3126 m) in the West and Namche Parbat (7256 m) in the East. Westward of the Nanga Parbat syntaxis, the extensions of Himalaya are seen along the Sulaiman and Kirthar ranges of Pakistan, ending against the Arabian Sea and covering a total length of 5200 km.

Boundaries and Physiography

  • Northern Boundary: Marked by the Brahmaputra.
  • Southern Boundary: Marked by Indo-Gangetic plains.

The NW-SE-trending 2500-km-long and 300-400-km-wide expanse of the main Himalaya embodies four physiographically contrasted and lithostructurally distinctive terranes, particularly in the stretch between the Ravi in the west and the Arunachal in the east.

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Four Physiographic and Lithostructural Terranes (South to North)

  1. The Siwaliks (Sub-Himalayas, Outer Himalayas)
  2. The Himachal (Lesser Himalaya, Lower Himalayas)
  3. The Himadri (Greater Himalayas, Crystalline Himalayas)
  4. The Tethys Himalaya

Lithotectonic Divisions of the Himalayas

1. Sub-Himalaya or Outer Himalaya (Siwalik Terrane)

  • Consisting of molasse sediments (18 to 1 Ma) exposed in the Siwalik Hills (250-800 m thick), together with their intermontane valleys called the duns (e.g., Dehra Dun).
  • The molasse sediments form an apron of gravelly debris in the middle called the Bhabar.
  • The Outer Himalaya is bounded to the south by the Himalayan Frontal Thrust (HFT), separating it from the vast Holocene Indo-Gangetic Alluvium of the Sindhu-Ganga Trough.

2. Lesser Himalayas

  • Overthrusts the Lower Himalayas in the south along the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT).
  • The Lesser Himalaya has an undulating landscape in the middle and mountainous terrain on the sides like the Pir Panjal and Dauladhar ranges (3500 m) in Kashmir and Mahabharat Hills (3000m) in Nepal.
  • This zone contains Palaeoproterozoic (~1800 Ma) and lower Palaeozoic (~500 Ma) sediments, some of which are metamorphosed up to greenschist facies.
  • This zone also contains cappings of Tertiary sediments, nappes, and klippen of metamorphic rocks (2200 to 1800 Ma), and Pan-African granitic intrusions (~550 Ma).

3. Higher or Greater Himalaya (Himadri)

  • Higher or Greater Himalayas are separated from the Lesser Himalayas in the south by the Main Central Thrust (MCT).
  • The Higher Himalaya with its high rugged scarps (3000 to 8000m) consists of Central Crystallines representing the metamorphic core, affected by intense ductile deformation and extensive migmatisation.
  • The Central Crystallines (2200-1800 Ma, 500-550 Ma, ~20 Ma) consist of a 10-15 km thick assemblage of mica schists, quartzites, calc-silicate rocks, paragneisses, orthogneisses, migmatites, and Miocene leucogranites.
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4. Tethyan or Tibetan Himalaya

  • Tethyan or Tibetan Himalayas are Separated from the Higher Himalayas by low-angle normal faults called the South Tibetan detachment system, which parallels the MCT and dips to the north. It is also called the Trans-Himadri Thrust.
  • The Tethyan Himalaya has a 10-17 m thick succession of highly fossiliferous marine sediments of Neoproterozoic (~600 Ma) to Eocene (~65 Ma) ages.
  • The sediments are largely un-metamorphosed and occupy synclinal basins to the south of the famous Indus Tsangpo Suture Zone.
  • The Tethyan Himalaya is bounded by the 50-60 m wide Trans-Himalayan Indus-Tsangpo Suture Zone in the north. The suture zone occurs along the valleys of The Indus and Tsangpo Rivers. It consists of deep-sea flysch sediments, blueschists, and ophiolite mélange of the lost Tethys Ocean. This suture is also called the Main Mantle Thrust.
  • In the western Himalayas, a second suture occurs further north called the Shyok Suture Zone which is associated with the Main Karakorum Fault.

5. Trans-Himalayan Batholiths

  • Comprising Karakorum, Ladakh, and Kailas Mansarovar, forming a large linear plutonic complex of I-type plutons (gabbro-diorite-granite) ranging in age from 110 to 40 Ma. This occurs to the north of the Indus-Tsangpo and Shyok suture zones.
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Lithotectonic Units Of Himalaya
Lithotectonic Units Of Himalaya
N-S Cross-section Of Himalayas
N-S Cross-section Of Himalayas

Simplified Cross-section of Himalaya

Thrust ZoneAssociated Features
Main Karakorum ThrustShyok Suture Zone, Karakorum-Ladakh Zone
Main Mantle ThrustIndus-Tsangpo Suture, Tethyan Himalaya
Trans-Himadri Thrust, Martoli Fault, Zanskar FaultHigher Himalaya
Main Central Thrust (MCT), Vaikrita ThrustLesser Himalaya
Murree Thrust, Krol Thrust, MBT-IMurree Formation
Main Boundary Thrust, MBT-IISiwalik Group
Himalayan Frontal ThrustIndo-Gangetic Alluvium

Precambrian of the Himalayas

  1. The Precambrian sequences of the Himalaya are exposed mainly in the Lesser and Higher Himalaya and to a lesser extent in the Tethyan Himalaya and Trans-Himalaya.
  2. The stratigraphy is complicated by the lack of fossils in the Precambrian and Phanerozoic un-metamorphosed sections, disruption by large-scale faults and thrusts, overprinting by Himalayan orogeny involving Tertiary metamorphism and granitic intrusions, and lack of adequate radiometric ages.
  3. The Geological Survey of India has divided the lithostratigraphy into eleven sedimentary cycles. Out of these, Cycles I to IV (First to Fourth Cycles) pertain to the Precambrian.
  4. Extending from Palaeoproterozoic to the Eocambrian (GSI, 1989).
  5. There are no recognisable Archaean elements in the Himalaya, and so its early history commences with the Palaeoproterozoic basement of the Indian shield.
  6. The Precambrian stratigraphic description of the Himalaya is organized here according to sedimentary cycles belonging to different tectonic zones (like the Lesser and Higher Himalaya), and categorized into geographic regions in the Western, Central, and Eastern Himalaya.

Composite lithostratigraphy of the First Cycle(1800-2250Ma)

Composite lithostratigraphy of the First Cycle(1800-2250Ma)
Intercalated quartzite, mica schist, marble, calc-silicate rock, metabasic rock, biotite gneiss and younger granite (chlorite to biotite grade)
Mica schist, quartzite, migmatitic biotite gneiss, granitic gneiss and basic sills (biotite grade)
Garnet-mica schist, quartzite, calc-silicate rock, banded and augen gneiss (garnet grade)
Kyanite schist, garnet-biotite-staurolite schist and quartzite, biotite gneiss (staurolite-kyanite grade)
Sillimanite-muscovite-K-feldspar gneiss (sillimanite grade)

Composite lithostratigraphy of the Second Cycle

LithostratigraphyLocation
Quartzite with siltstone and slateKalamund (Kashmir)
Carbonate sequence with stromatolitic dolomite, phylliteShali, Deoban (H.F.)
Limestone, phosphorite, magnesite, quartziteGangolihat (Kumaun)
Quartzite with penecontemporaneous flows of spilite-keratophyre, phylliteMandi, Banjar (H.P.)
Carbonaceous phyllite, quartzite, metavolcanic, and marbleTenga Formation (Arunachal)

Composite lithostratigraphy of the Third Cycle

Jaunsar and Shimla Groups
Quartz arenite, quartz wacke, slate and rare conglomerate
Quartz arenite interbedded with slate and rare metabasalts
Shale-siltstone alternations with algal limestone
Limestone, shale, quartz arenite and boulder bed

Generalized Stratigraphy of Fourth Cycle

Krol GroupCalcareous sandstone, quartz arenite, dolomite, limestone, phosphatic chert, black shale, rare conglomerate
Shale, dolomite, gypsum lenses, oolitic limestone
Krol SandstoneQuartz arenite with fragments of phosphatic shale
Infra KrolBlack shale, slate, slaty quartzite
Blaini GroupShale and interbedded dolomitic limestone
Boulder bed with clasts of earlier sediments in a variable matrix
Shale, slate, quartzite, varved argillite, and rare conglomerate
Boulder bed with assorted clasts and variable matrix

Precambrian Tethyan Succession

  1. The Salkhala Group in North Western Himalaya (J and K): Contains mainly schist, slates, quartzites, phyllites, etc., overlain by Dogra slates of Early Cambrian to Late Neoproterozoic.
  2. The Vaikrita Group in the Spiti Region of Himachal Pradesh: Made up of mica-schist, talc-schist, and phyllites, overlain by Haimanta Group (Upper Proterozoic-Cambrian).
  3. Jutogh Group in Shimla: Intruded by Chor Granite of Paleozoic age.
  4. Daling Group in Darjeeling: Various lithologies.
  5. Bhimpedi Group in Nepal: Various lithologies.

Precambrian of Lesser Himalayas

Western Sector

  1. Jammu Limestone: Also known as Great Limestone or Riasi Limestone, overlain by Subathu formation of Paleocene-Eocene age.
  2. Shali-Shimla Group: Various lithologies.
Lithostratigraphic Classification of the Simla Group (after Srikantia and Sharma, 1971)
FormationsLithologyThickness in metres
Sanjauli FormationUpper : Conglomerate, arkoses sandstone, shale1600
Lower: Greywacke, shale & siltstone, orthoquartzite
Chaosa FormationShale, siltstone, greywacke, orthoquartzite1300
Kuniha FormationShale, siltstone with limestone interbeds450
Basantpur FormationBedded & massive limestone, shale and siltstone and a basal greyish white quartzite and conglomerate1000
Disconformity
SHALI GROUP

Central Sector

  • Kumaon-Garhwal Region: Various lithologies.
Lithological Succession of the Inner Autochthonous Zone of the Kumaun Himalaya (after Valdiya, 1980)
GroupFormationLithologyThickness in metres
Sirmur Group (Palaeogene)
Unconformity
Tejam GroupMandhali FormationCarbonaceous, pyritic phyllites, limestones and conglomerateMore than 2500
Deoban FormationStromatolitic cherty limestones & slates1200
Sharp break in facies
Rautgraha FormationQuartzites, slates with volcanic flows2000
Damatha GroupChakrata FormationGreywackes, siltstones, and shalesMore than 2000
Base not exposed

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CSIR NET Exam: EARTH, ATMOSPHERIC, OCEAN AND PLANETARY SCIENCES

Exam Pattern: EARTH, ATMOSPHERIC, OCEAN AND PLANETARY SCIENCES 

 PART APART BPART CTOTAL
Total questions205080150
Max No. of Questions to attempt15352575
Marks for each correct answer224200
Marks for each incorrect answer (Negative marking for part A & B is @ 25%, and part C is @ 33%)0.50.51.32–

The candidate is required to answer a maximum of 15, 35, and 25 questions from Part-A, Part-B, and Part-C, respectively. If more than the required number of questions are answered, only the first 15, 35, and 25 questions in Part A, Part B, and Part C, respectively, will be taken up for evaluation.

Below each question in Part A, Part B, and Part C, four alternatives or responses are given. Only one of these alternatives is the “correct” option to the question. The candidate has to find, for each question, the correct or the best answer.

Syllabus

EARTH, ATMOSPHERIC, OCEAN AND PLANETARY SCIENCES

PAPER I (PART B)

  1. The Earth and the Solar System

    • Milky Way and the solar system.
    • Modern theories on the origin of the Earth and planetary bodies.
    • Earth’s orbital parameters, Kepler’s laws of planetary motion.
    • Geological Time Scale; space and time scales of processes in the solid Earth, atmosphere, and oceans.
    • Radioactive isotopes and their applications.
    • Meteorites: chemical composition and primary differentiation of the Earth.
    • Basic principles of stratigraphy.
    • Theories about the origin of life and fossil records.
    • Earth’s gravity, magnetic fields, and thermal structure: Geoid and spheroid concepts; Isostasy.

  2. Earth Materials, Surface Features, and Processes

    • Gross composition and physical properties of important minerals and rocks.
    • Properties and processes responsible for mineral concentrations.
    • Distribution of rocks and minerals in Earth’s units and India.
    • Physiography of the Earth; weathering, erosion, and soil formation.
    • Energy balance of Earth’s surface processes.
    • Physiographic features and river basins in India.

  3. Interior of the Earth, Deformation, and Tectonics

    • Basic concepts of seismology and Earth’s internal structure.
    • Physico-chemical and seismic properties of Earth’s interior.
    • Stress and strain concepts; rock deformation.
    • Folds, joints, and faults; causes and measurement of earthquakes.
    • Interplate and intraplate seismicity; paleomagnetism.
    • Sea-floor spreading and plate tectonics.

  4. Oceans and Atmosphere

    • Hypsography of continents and ocean floors: continental shelves, slopes, abyssal plains.
    • Physical and chemical properties of seawater; residence times of elements.
    • Ocean currents, waves, tides, thermohaline circulation, and conveyor belts.
    • Major water masses, biological productivity, and fluid motion.
    • Atmospheric structure and heat budget; greenhouse gases and global warming.
    • General circulation, monsoon systems, ENSO, cyclones, and local systems in India.
    • Marine and atmospheric pollution, ozone depletion.

  5. Environmental Earth Sciences

    • Properties of water and the hydrological cycle.
    • Energy resources: uses, degradation, alternatives, and management.
    • Ecology, biodiversity, and natural resource conservation.
    • Natural hazards and remote sensing applications.

PAPER I (PART C)

I. Geology

  1. Mineralogy and Petrology

    • Point group, space group, and lattice concepts.
    • Crystal field theory, mineralogical spectroscopy, and bonding in mineral structures.
    • Genesis, properties, and crystallization of magmas.
    • Metamorphic structures, textures, and thermobarometry.
    • Petrogenesis of Indian rock suites: Deccan Traps, charnockites, ophiolites, and more.

  2. Structural Geology and Geotectonics

    • Stress and strain analysis; Mohr circles.
    • Geometry and mechanics of folds, faults, and ductile shear zones.
    • Plate boundaries, mantle plumes, and Himalayan orogeny.

  3. Paleontology and Applications

    • Life origin theories, evolution models, and mass extinctions.
    • Applications of fossils in age determination, paleoecology, and paleogeography.
    • Micropaleontology in hydrocarbon exploration.

  4. Sedimentology and Stratigraphy

    • Classification of sediments and sedimentary rocks.
    • Sedimentary environments and basin evolution.
    • Stratigraphic principles, correlation methods, and sequence stratigraphy.
    • Phanerozoic stratigraphy of India.

  5. Marine Geology and Paleoceanography

    • Ocean floor morphology, ocean circulation, and thermohaline processes.
    • Factors influencing oceanic sediments and paleoceanographic reconstruction.

  6. Geochemistry

    • Atomic properties, periodic table, thermodynamics of reactions, and isotopes in geochronology.
    • Applications of stable isotopes in Earth processes.

  7. Economic Geology

    • Ore formation processes, mineral deposit studies, and petroleum geology.
    • Coal and unconventional energy resources.

  8. Precambrian Geology and Crustal Evolution

    • Evolution of Earth systems and Precambrian characteristics of India.
    • Precambrian–Cambrian boundary.

  9. Quaternary Geology

    • Quaternary stratigraphy, climate variability, and human evolution.
    • Dating methods and tectonic geomorphology.

  10. Applied Geology

  • Remote sensing and GIS.
  • Engineering properties of rocks; construction investigations.
  • Methods of mineral exploration and groundwater studies.

II. Physical Geography

  1. Geomorphology: Landform processes, DEM analysis, extraterrestrial geomorphology.
  2. Climatology: Radiation balance, wind systems, ENSO, and climate classification.
  3. Biogeography: Plant and animal associations, Indian biogeography, and conservation.
  4. Environmental Geography: Man-land relationships, hazards, and ecological balance.
  5. Geography of India: Physical geography, climatology, agriculture, and population characteristics.

III. Geophysics

  1. Signal Processing: Fourier transforms, filters, and signal analysis.
  2. Field Theory: Newtonian potential, Green’s theorem, and seismic wave propagation.
  3. Numerical Analysis and Inversion: Least squares, optimization, and pattern recognition.
  4. Gravity and Magnetic Methods: Data interpretation and anomaly analysis.
  5. Seismic Methods: Ray theory, reflection/refraction techniques, seismic stratigraphy.
  6. Well Logging: Techniques for lithology, porosity, and fluid saturation interpretation.

(IV) METEOROLOGY

1) Climatology

  • Same as under Geography.

2) Physical Meteorology

  • Thermal Structure of the Atmosphere and Its Composition.
  • Radiation:
    • Basic laws – Rayleigh and Mie scattering, multiple scattering.
    • Radiation from the sun, solar constant, effect of clouds, surface and planetary albedo.
    • Emission and absorption of terrestrial radiation, radiation windows, radiative transfer, Greenhouse effect, net radiation budget.
  • Thermodynamics of Dry and Moist Air:
    • Specific gas constant, adiabatic and isentropic processes, entropy and enthalpy.
    • Moisture variables, virtual temperature, Clausius–Clapeyron equation.
    • Adiabatic processes of moist air, thermodynamic diagrams.
  • Hydrostatic Equilibrium:
    • Hydrostatic equation, variation of pressure with height, geopotential, standard atmosphere, altimetry.
  • Vertical Stability of the Atmosphere:
    • Dry and moist air parcel and slice methods, tropical convection.
  • Atmospheric Optics:
    • Visibility and optical phenomena – rainbows, haloes, corona, mirage, etc.

3) Atmospheric Electricity

  • Fair weather electric field in the atmosphere and potential gradients.
  • Ionization in the atmosphere, electrical fields in thunderstorms.
  • Theories of thunderstorm electrification, structure of lightning flash, mechanisms of earth-atmospheric charge balance, and the role of thunderstorms.

4) Cloud Physics

  • Cloud classification, condensation nuclei, growth of cloud drops and ice-crystals.
  • Precipitation mechanisms: Bergeron–Findeisen process, coalescence process.
  • Precipitation of warm and mixed clouds, artificial precipitation, hail suppression, fog and cloud dissipation.
  • Radar observation of clouds and precipitation:
    • Radar equation, rain drop spectra, radar echoes of hailstorms, tornadoes, hurricanes, and rainfall measurements.

5) Dynamic Meteorology

  • Basic Equations and Fundamental Forces:
    • Pressure, gravity, centripetal and Coriolis forces.
    • Continuity and momentum equations (Cartesian and spherical coordinates).
    • Scale analysis, inertial flow, geostrophic and gradient winds, thermal wind.
    • Divergence and vertical motion, Rossby, Richardson, Reynolds, and Froude numbers.
  • Atmospheric Turbulence:
    • Mixing length theory, planetary boundary layer equations, Ekman layer, eddy transport of heat, moisture, and momentum.
  • Linear Perturbation Theory:
    • Internal and external gravity waves, inertia waves, gravity waves, Rossby waves, wave motion in the tropics, barotropic and baroclinic instabilities.
  • Atmospheric Energetics:
    • Kinetic, potential, and internal energies; conversion into kinetic energy; available potential energy.

6) Numerical Weather Prediction (NWP)

  • Computational instability, filtering of sound and gravity waves.
  • Filtered forecast equations, barotropic and baroclinic models.
  • Objective analysis, data assimilation techniques, satellite applications in NWP.

7) General Circulation and Climate Modelling

  • Observed zonally symmetric circulations, meridional circulation models.
  • General circulation modelling principles: grid-point and spectral GCMs.
  • Climate variability phenomena: ENSO, QBO, MJO, etc.
  • Ocean-atmosphere coupled models.

8) Synoptic Meteorology

  • Weather observations and transmission, synoptic charts.
  • Synoptic weather forecasting, prediction of weather elements, and hazardous weather phenomena.
  • Tropical Meteorology:
    • ITCZ, monsoons, tropical cyclones, jet streams.
  • Extra-Tropical Features:
    • Jet streams, extratropical cyclones, anticyclones.
  • Air masses and fronts: sources, classification, frontogenesis, and associated weather.

9) Aviation Meteorology

  • Meteorological role in aviation, weather hazards during takeoff, cruising, and landing.
  • In-flight hazards: icing, turbulence, visibility issues, gusts, wind shear, thunderstorms.

10) Satellite Meteorology

  • Polar orbiting and geostationary satellites.
  • Applications in identifying synoptic systems, cyclones, temperature estimation, rainfall prediction, and temperature/humidity soundings.

(V) OCEAN SCIENCES

1) Physical Oceanography

  • T-S diagrams, mixing processes, characteristics of water masses.
  • Wind-generated waves, shallow and deep-water wave dynamics.
  • Coastal processes: wave reflection, refraction, diffraction, littoral currents, rip currents, tsunami, and more.
  • Ocean Circulation:
    • Global conveyor belt circulation, Ekman’s theory, upwelling processes.

2) Chemical Oceanography

  • Composition of seawater, chemical exchanges, and classification of elements.
  • Element chemistry under special conditions (estuaries, vents, etc.).
  • Carbonate chemistry, biological pumps, and sedimentary deposit factors.

3) Geological Oceanography

  • Topics as listed under “Marine Geology & Paleoceanography.”

4) Biological Oceanography

  • Classification of marine environments and organisms.
  • Primary and secondary production, factors affecting biodiversity.
  • Human impacts on marine communities and climate change effects.

 

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